Animals as a pathway to connection to nature: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Key findings from this study

• The study found that animal encounters produce a statistically significant positive effect on connection to nature with an effect size of d = 0.18.
• The authors report that mammals and birds comprise the vast majority of studied animals, while amphibians, reptiles, and fish remain substantially underrepresented in empirical research.
• The researchers demonstrate that publication bias is negligible and between-study heterogeneity is low, supporting the stability of the meta-analytic findings across the included samples.

Overview

This systematic review and meta-analysis examines the empirical relationship between animal encounters and human connection to nature, synthesizing findings from 116 peer-reviewed studies published between 2000 and 2024. The research addresses a gap in environmental psychology literature by systematically analyzing how interactions with animals contribute to fostering connection to nature, a construct recognized as central to promoting pro-environmental behavior and individual well-being.

Methods and approach

The review followed PRISMA 2020 guidelines and searched four academic databases (ProQuest, Web of Science, ERIC, and PubMed) for empirical peer-reviewed studies. The 116 studies meeting inclusion criteria underwent analysis for temporal trends, geographic origin, taxonomic focus, and sample size characteristics. A subset of 15 studies containing 23 independent samples was subjected to meta-analytic procedures to estimate the overall effect of animal encounters on connection to nature. Publication bias and heterogeneity were assessed across included studies.

Results

Meta-analysis of the 23 independent samples yielded a statistically significant positive effect of animal encounters on connection to nature (d = 0.18, 95% CI [0.10, 0.26]). Publication bias was negligible and heterogeneity among studies was low. Mammals and birds constituted the most frequently studied taxa across the reviewed literature, while amphibians, reptiles, and fish received minimal empirical attention. The majority of studies were conducted in North America, Europe, and Australia, with most employing sample sizes below 1000 participants.

Implications

The modest but significant effect size observed in the meta-analysis provides empirical support for the role of animal encounters in strengthening connection to nature. These findings contribute to environmental psychology by establishing a quantifiable relationship between animal interactions and a key psychological construct linked to pro-environmental outcomes. The results suggest that animal contact interventions warrant consideration as evidence-based strategies within conservation engagement and nature-based well-being programs.

The taxonomic bias identified in the reviewed literature—the overrepresentation of mammals and birds versus underrepresentation of amphibians, reptiles, and fish—indicates substantial gaps in understanding how diverse animal groups contribute to connection to nature. This disparity limits the generalizability of current findings and suggests that future research should systematically examine animal taxa currently underrepresented in the empirical literature.

The low heterogeneity and negligible publication bias support the robustness of the meta-analytic findings. However, the relatively low effect magnitude and the predominance of small-sample studies underscore the need for larger-scale, methodologically rigorous investigations. Future research should employ more sophisticated designs to isolate the specific mechanisms and contributions of animal interactions within multicomponent interventions.

Scope and limitations

This summary is based on the study abstract and available metadata. It does not include a full analysis of the complete paper, supplementary materials, or underlying datasets unless explicitly stated. Findings should be interpreted in the context of the original publication.